ECON 3152/4453/8053 Homework 1
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ECON 3152/4453/8053 Homework 1
2022
1. (Vertical differentiation) Two firms, H and L, are selling products in the same category. The quality of Firm i’s product is vi , where vH > vL > 0. There is a unit mass of consumers whose types are uniformly distributed on [0, 1] each with unit demand; this means that if a firm sells its product to (and only to) consumers whose types are between a and b (with b > a), then the quantity sold by the firm is b − a. (It does not matter whether the boundary points a and b are included.) We assume that the qualities vH and vL are fixed because it is not easy to redesign a product of a different quality, but the two firms simultaneously choose their unit prices pH and pL . If a consumer of type θ ∈ [0, 1] buys from Firm i, his utility is θvi − pi ; if a consumer does not buy from either firm, his utility is zero. For simplicity, assume that both firms have zero cost of production and maximize their profits.
(a) [5 marks] We model the firms’ pricing problem as a strategic form game with only the two firms as players. Notice that it does not make sense for Firm i to charge a unit price higher than vi , so we may as well put [0, vi ] as Firm i’s set of strategies. Show that Firm L’s profit is
uL (pL , pH ) = (min {
, 1 } −
) pL .
Notice that we do not need to worry about the difference in the parenthesis being negative: with the above payoff function, Firm L will never choose a pL rendering that difference negative.
(b) [5 marks] Show that Firm H’s profit is
uH (pL , pH ) = (1 − max {
,
}) pH .
(c) [3 marks] We seek a Nash equilibrium where both firms make positive sales. The main difficulty is that uL and uH are not differentiable everywhere. Let us first consider uL . Show that Firm H will not make a positive sale when
≥ 1. Therefore, for our purpose we can rewrite uL as
uL (pL , pH ) = (
−
) pL .
(d) [2 marks] Show that when Firm L makes positive sales,
>
. Therefore, for our purpose we can rewrite uH as
uH (pL , pH ) = (1 −
) pH .
(e) [10 marks for ECON3152, 5 marks for ECON4453/8053] Find all the Nash equilibria in which both firms make positive sales. As a good habit, you should check that 0 <
<
< 1 and that
>
for the equilibrium prices (pL(∗), pH(∗)) you found.
Solution.
(a) A consumer of type θ buys from Firm L if and only if θvL − pL ≥ max{0, θvH − pH }, which means that pL /vL ≤ θ ≤ (vH − vL ) −1 (pH − pL ). Therefore, the difference in the parenthesis on the right hand side of the given formula is the mass of consumers buying from Firm L.
(b) A consumer of type θ buys from Firm H if and only if θvH − pH ≥ max{0, θvL − pL }, which means that θ ≥ max{pH /vH , (vH − vL ) −1 (pH − pL ). The desired result follows.
(c) That (vH − vL ) −1 (pH − pL ) < 1 is obvious from the condition that uH (pL , pH ) > 0. The desired result follows.
(d) When uL (pL , pH ) > 0, (vH − vL ) −1 (pH − pL ) > v L(−)1pL , which implies that pH vL > pL vH . The latter inequality implies that vH(−)1pH < (vH − vL ) −1 (pH − pL ), which is the desired result.
(e) BRL (pH ) = (2vH ) −1vLpH and BRH (pL ) = (vH − vL + pL )/2. Setting pL = BRL (pH ) and pH =
BRH (pL ) yields a unique Nash equilibrium
(pL(∗), pH(∗)) = (
,
) .
2. Consider the following two-player game.
|
|
H |
T |
Q |
|
H |
1,-1 |
-1,1 |
.6,.6 |
|
T |
-1,1 |
1,-1 |
.6,.6 |
(a) [5 marks] Show that there is no Nash equilibrium in pure strategy.
(b) [5 marks] (ECON4453/8053 only) Show that no strategy is strictly dominated.
(c) [5 marks] The key step in finding Nash equilibria in mixed strategy is to find the supports of such equilibria. Since Player 1 only has two strategies to choose from, there are only three possibilities. Show that there is no Nash equilibrium where Player 1 uses a pure strategy. (Hint: first assume that Player 1 chooses H; show that Player 2’s best response is T and that Player 1 would not choose H had him known that Player 2 would choose T.)
(d) [3 marks] Now focus on the case where Player 1 mixes between H and T. Show that Player 2 must put equal weights on H and T to make sure that Player 1 is indifferent between H and T; notice that the “equal weight” could be zero.
(e) [2 marks] Show that there is no Nash equilibrium where Player 2 chooses H or T with positive probability. (Hint: suppose that he indeed chooses H and T with equal and positive probabilities; show that Player 1 must mix H and T equally for Player 2 to be indifferent between H and T and derivve a contradiction.)
(f) [10 marks for ECON3152, 5 marks for ECON4453/8053] Find all the Nash equilibria of the game.
Solution.
(a) We framed boxes to label best response payoffs: Since no grid has two boxes, there is no Nash
H
T
Q
H
1
,-1
-1,
1
.6,.6
T
-1,
1
1
,-1
.6,.6
equilibrium in pure strategy.
(b) Both of Player 1’s strategies are best responses to something, so they cannot be eliminated. H and
T for Player 2 have been shown to be best responses to something. Finally, it is easy to see that Q is the best response to .5H + .5T . Therefore, nothing can be eliminated for Player 2 either.
(c) Suppose that there exists a Nash equilibrium in which Player 1 plays H with probability one. Then T is Player 2’s unique best response and must be played in the Nash equilibrium. However, H is not Player 1’s best response to Player 2’s playing T, contradicting the definition of Nash equilibrium. A similar argument shows that there is no Nash equilibrium in which Player 1 plays T with probability
one.
(d) Let q2,H and q2,T be the probabilities that Player 2 play H and T, respectively. Then Player 1’s payoff from playing H is q2,H − q2,T + .6(1 − q2,H − q2,T) while his payoff fro playing T is −q2,H + q2,T + .6(1 − q2,H − q2,T). The two payoffs are equal if and only if q2,H − q2,T .
(e) Suppose that Player 2 chooses H (and thus T) with positive probability. Then Player 2 must be
indifferent between H and T. This condition implies that Player 1 mixes between H and T equally, yielding payoff 0 for Player 2 to play H or T, which is strictly lower than her payoff from playing Q, a contradiction.
(f) From what has been shown so far, in all Nash equilibria, Player 2 plays Q with probability one. Let q1,H be the probability that Player 1 plays H. Then for Q to be a best response, we need .6 ≥ max{1 − 2q1,H , 2q1,H − 1}, so .2 ≤ q1,H ≤ .8. Therefore, the set of all Nash equilibria is {(q1,HH + (1 − q1,H)T, Q) : .2 ≤ q1,H ≤ .8}.
3. There are two entrepreneurs, 1 and 2, investing in a joint project. The project has a success rate
e1 e2
q(e1 , e2 ) =
when Entrepreneur i invests ei . When successful, the project generates a total revenue of 2R which is divided equally between the two entrepreneurs. (Of course, R > 0.) An entrepreneur’s payoff the difference between the revenue (if any) and the investment: ui (e1 , e2 ) = Rq(e1 , e2 ) − ei .
(a) [5 marks] Check that for all e1 , e2 ∈ [0, ∞), q(e1 , e2 ) is between 0 and 1 and strictly increasing in e1 and e2 when both are strictly positive.
(b) [5 marks] (ECON 4453/8053 only) Show that each player’s payoff function has strictly increasing differences:
u1 (e1 , e2 ) − u1 (e
, e2 ) > u1 (e1 , e
) − u1 (e
, e
), for all e1 > e
≥ 0 and e2 > e
≥ 0.
In words, the net benefit of a higher investment is bigger for Entrepreneur 1 when Enterpreneur 2 makes a higher investment.
(c) [5 marks] First we consider the possibility of “corner solutions”. Compute BR1 (0), Entrepreneur 1’s best response when Entrepreneur 2 does not make any investment. Is (0,0) a Nash equilibrium?
(d) [5 marks] For the rest of the question, we seek a condition under which there exists a Nash equilibrium when both entrepreneurs make positive investments. Thus, we focus on the case where e1 and e2 are both positive. For a fixed e2 > 0, show that u1 (e1 , e2 ) is a strictly concave function of e1 .
(e) [5 marks] Find BR1 (e2 ) for e2 > 0.
(f) [10 marks] Show that if (e1 , e2 ) is a Nash equilibrium, then e1 = e2 . (Hint: find a function f such that the system ei = BRi (e−i ) can be rewritten as f (e1 ) = f (e2 ) = R(1 + e1 ) −1 (1 + e2 ) −1; then show that f is one-to-one.)
(g) [5 marks] Show that a Nash equilibrium (e, e) satisfies the equation that
(1 + e)3 − Re = 0. (1)
(h) [5 marks] Find a necessary and sufficient condition under which there exists a Nash equilibrium where both entrepreneurs make positive investments. (Hint: one method is to apply the root formula for cubic equations; alternatively, observe that the left hand side of Eq. (1) is a continuous function of e and is positive both when e → 0 and when e → ∞, so Eq. (1) has a positive root if and only if the minimum of the left hand side over [0, ∞) is non-positive.)
(i) [10 marks] Determine the number of Nash equilibria with positive investments.
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Solution. We use subscripts to denote partial derivatives.
(a) q1 (e1 , e2 ) =
> 0 and q2 (e1 , e2 ) =
> 0 when e1 > 0 and e2 > 0. That q is
between 0 and 1 is obvious.
(b) If you know the criterion in terms of mixed partial derivatives, you can do that. However, the inequality here follows from the fact that u1 (e1 , e2 ) = Rg(e1 )g(e2 ) − e1 where g(e) =
and g is
strictly increasing: the difference between the left hand side and the right hand side is R(g(e1 ) − g(e
))(g(e2 ) − g(e
)) > 0.
(c) u1 (e1 , 0) is strictly decreasing in e1 , so BR1 (0) = 0. Similarly, BR2 (0) = 0. Therefore, (0, 0) is a Nash equilibrium.
(d) u1 , 11 (e1 , e2 ) =
< 0 for all e1 , e2 > 0, so u1 (e1 , e2 ) is strictly concave in e1 .
(e) From the previous part, the first order condition is sufficient for optimality. It yields that BR1 (e2 ) =
max{^(1 + e2 ) −1e2 R − 1, 0}.
(f) In what follows, assume that (e1 , e2 ) is a Nash equilibrium with e1 , e2 > 0. Then e1 = BR1 (e2 ) and
e2 = BR2 (e1 ), so
− 1 = 0;
(1 + e1 )2 1 + e2
R e1
Rearranging the equations yields that f (e1 ) = f (e2 ) =
, where f (e) =
− 1 − e. Clearly, f is strictly decreasing and thus one-to-one, so e1 = e2 .
(g) Eq. (1) follows directly from the previous part. When R ≤ 3, the left hand side of Eq. (1) is strictly increasing in e and the equation has no solution. Assume that R > 3. Then the minimum of the left hand side of Eq. (1) is ^R/3 − 1 with the minimum value R (1 −
√
), which is non-positive if and only if R ≥ 27/4. Therefore, there exists a Nash equilibrium with positive investment if and only if R ≥ 27/4.
(h) The left hand side of Eq. (1) is a strictly convex function, so it crosses zero exactly twice when its minimum is negative. Therefore, when R < 27/4, the only Nash equilibrium is (0, 0); when
R = 27/4, there are two Nash equilibrium namely (0, 0) and (1/2, 1/2); when R > 27/4, there are three Nash equilibrium with two of them featuring positive investments.
2022-08-24